My Journal

PRONUNCIATION ERRORS MADE BY SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN READING ENGLISH TEXTS ALOUD

Wuri Syaputri

wurisyaputri@gmail.com

English Department, State University of Semarang

Abstract

The objectives of this study identified the types, causes, the teacher/ students overcome, and teacher’s influence in causing students pronunciation errors. The method of this study was qualitative descriptive. The result of the data analysis showed that the student’s pronunciation errors were defined into pre-systematic, systematic, and post-systematic errors. The students got the difficulties in pronouncing /ŋ/, /d/, /ʤ/, /ʧ/, /z/, /ð/, /θ/, /∫/, and /g/. The causes of errors were interference, intralingual and developmental errors. The teacher overcomes the errors by repetition, silence and correction.

Key Words: Error analysis; Pronunciation; Reading aloud.

What is Immersion?

Mike Bostwick

Language immersion is an approach to foreign language instruction in which the usual curricular activities are conducted in a foreign language. This means that the new language is the medium of instruction as well as the object of instruction. Immersion students acquire the necessary language skills to understand and communicate about the subject matter set out in the school's program of instruction. They follow the same curricula, and in some instances, use the same materials (translated into the target language) as those used in the non-immersion schools of their district.

Conversational Structure

A. Definition of Conversation

Conversation is clearly the prototypical kind of language usage, the form in which we are all first exposed to language. All major aspects of pragmatic organization are connected to usage in conversation such as  Deixis: encoding of temporal, spatial, social, discourse parameters organized around the assumption of co-present conversational participants. Presupposition: involving constraints on the way in which information has to be presented if it is to be introduced to particular participants with specific shared knowledge and assumptions about the world. Implicatures: deriving from specific assumptions about conversational context.  Speech acts: building on the assumption of a conversational matrix (e.g., betting requires an uptake to be effective).

Conversational Implicature

Levinson writes what I believe are the most instructive 70-something pages on the subject of conversational implicature. He is, from the very beginning, anxious to point out not only the great many advantages which the concept brings but also the puzzles it gives rise to. “Implicature,” he writes, “stands as a paradigmatic example of the nature and power of pragmatic explanations of linguistic phenomena” (p. 97) The main output of such a theory is that – as Grice in fact pointed out in Prolegomena to Grice (1989) – that over and beyond the stable semantic core there is an unstable, contextual layer of meaning. This layer of meaning may be seen as “the set of possible implicatures”. As long as we are able to define and predict the usage of this set, the theory itself might turn out to be profitable. Before we go further, it might perhaps be handy to stress that this level-division is also present in the nature of the four maxims (Quality, Quantity, Relation & Manner): they are, indeed, maxims – not rules. They express maximally co-operative communication and thus function not as conventions but as putting into practice a rationale for co-operative exchange. As a matter of fact, one of Grice’s powerful arguments was the fact that the same maxims or some derivates of them seem to operate also within non-linguistic behavior.

Deixis

Essentially deixis concerns the ways in which language encode or grammaticalize features of the context of utterance or speech event, and thus also concerns ways in which the interpretation of utterances depends on the analysis of that context of utterance. The facts of deixis should act as a constant reminder to theoretical linguists of the simple but immensely important fact that natural languages are primarily designed, so to speak, for use in face to face interaction, and thus there are limits to the extent to which they can be analyzed without taking this into account (Lyson, 1977a: 589ff).

Deixis is the phenomenon of encoding contextual information by means of lexical items of grammatical distinctions that provide this information only when paired with this context. In other words, it means lexicalizing or grammaticalizing contextual information that is making it into obligatory grammatical or lexical distinctions. They give instructions to the addressee that context has to be consulted in order to grasp the meaning of the utterance. In all languages there are many words and expressions whose reference rely entirely on the situational context of the utterance and can only be understood in light of these circumstances. This aspect of pragmatics is called deixis.

Total Physical Renponse (TPR)

a.    Definition

Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method which establishes a link between speech, a primary mode of language and action. The mode of teaching language here is a motor activity. TPR real acts a grammar based view of language (Singh, 2011).

Children are exposed to huge amounts of language input before speaking. Language learners can also benefit from following this “natural” progression from comprehension to production, instead of the more normal situation where learners are asked to produce instantly. The left brain can be described as logical, one-track, and cynical. It is used when analyzing, talking, discussing, etc. Most classroom activities in Indonesia are aimed at the left brain. The right brain is used when moving, acting, using metaphor, drawing, pointing, etc. It is targeted by sports and extra-curricular activities in Indonesian schools. When language is taught by lecturing or explaining, the cynical left brain is targeted and the information is kept in short term memory (if at all). It is soon forgotten as it never becomes “real” to the student.

When language is taught actively through movement, the right brain “believes” the information and retains it, in the same way that skills such as swimming or riding a bicycle are remembered long term. Students learn more when they are relaxed. This is because the affective filter, a mental barrier between the students and the information, is raised when students are nervous or uncomfortable. When the affective filter is high, learners find it harder to understand, process, and remember information.

Language Attitude

Language is a mental attitude or feelings towards the position of its own language or language of others (Kridalaksana, 2001:197). In the Indonesian language attitudes word can refer to the body shape, the upright standing position, behavior or gestures, and actions or action taken based on the view (establishment, beliefs, or opinions) as a reaction to the existence of a thing or event.

Attitude is a psychological phenomenon, which usually manifests in the form of action or behavior. Attitudes can not be observed directly. To observe the attitude can be seen through the behavior, but various studies show that what appears in the behavior does not always indicate attitudes. Vice versa, one's attitude is not always reflected in his behavior.

Circumstances and the attitude formation process is not far from the state language and the attitude formation process in general. As with the attitude, the attitude is also the language of mental events that can not be observed directly. Language attitudes can be observed through the behavior of speech-language or behavior. But in this case also apply provided that not every speech behavior reflects the attitude of the language. Likewise, language attitudes are not always reflected in the behavior of speech. The difference between language and parole (de Saussure, 1976),

Clause Relation

Clause relations are the building blocks of these sequences, as demonstrated with the following examples (Hoey 1994:27). The clause-relational approach to written text, where it was stressed that the units of written discourse, rather than always being co-extensive with sentences (though they sometimes are), were best seen as functional segments (of anything from phrasal to paragraph length) which could be related to one another by a finite set of cognitive relations, such as cause-consequence, instrument-achievement, temporal sequence, and matching relations such as contrasting and equivalence. Individual segments of texts combined to form the logical structure of the whole and to form certain characteristic patterns (such as problem-solution). The sequencing of segments and how the relations between them are signalled were viewed as factors in textual coherence (see Winter 1977; Hoey 1983).

THE DIRECT METHOD

1. Introduction

Towards the end of the late 1800s, a revolution in language teaching philosophy took place that is seen by many as the dawn of modern foreign language teaching. Teachers, frustrated by the limits of the Grammar Translation Method in terms of its inability to create communicative competence in students, began to experiment with new ways of teaching language.

Basically, teachers began attempting to teach foreign languages in a way that was more similar to first language acquisition. It incorporated techniques designed to address all the areas that the Grammar Translation did not - namely oral communication, more spontaneous use of the language, and developing the ability to think in the target language.

THE GRAMMAR OF INTERPERSONAL MEANING: MOOD

Halliday (1984, 1985a: 68-71) approaches the grammar of interaction from semantic perspective. He points out that whenever we use language to interact, one of things we are doing with it is establishing a relationship between us: between the person speaking now and the person who will probably speak next.

The mood structure of the clauses refers to the organization of asset of functional constituents including the constituent Subject. The component that gets bandied back and forth is what we call the MOOD element of the clause (we use capital letters to differentiate the MOOD constituent of the clause from the general term, Mood, which describes the overall structure of the clause) The other component is called the RESIDUE. We can already, then suggest thet propositions can be divided into two functional constituent.

We have therefore identified two essential functional constituents of the MOOD component of the clause: the Subject and the Finite. the Subject offered by Halliday (1985a: 76) is that it realizes the thing by reference to which the proposition can be affirmed denied. It provides the person or thing in whom is vested the success or failure of the proposition, what is “held responsible”. The second constituent of MOOD element is the Finite. Halliday (1985a: 75) defines the Finite in terms of its function in the clause to make the proposition definite, to anchor the proposition in a way that we can argue about it.

INTRODUCTION TO THE LEXICO-GRAMMAR

The discourse-semantic stratum functions to enable context to be textured into a coherent and cohesive linguistic text. The experiential, interpersonal and textual meaning choices which express context in the text are turn realized through lexico-grammatical patterns: through the words and structures that speakers use. In the first chapter, the traffic lights were described as a two-level semiotic system, involving a level of content realized through a level of expression. The lexico-grammatical level was described simply as an intermediate level of linguistic coding. We must consider in more detail what the function of this level is. What, for example, does it allow us to do in language that we cannot do with a two-level semiotic system like the traffic lights?

If we wish to extend the system so that we can mean more things (for example, we want to add the meaning “REVERSE” to the system), we will have to find a new light to stand for this meaning.

Learning Motivation

Gardner (1985:51) says it is possible to classify the reasons for second language learning so that they reflect some ultimate goal. Once classified, the various categories would seem best identified as orientations in order to maintain conceptual clarity. Ellis (1986:300) agrees with the need to classify the reasons for language learning when he puts forward that ‘motivation in language learning can be defined in terms of the learner’s overall goal or orientation.’ Gardner (1985:51) argues that ‘this terminology (orientations) was introduced by Gardner and Lambert (1972) when they focused on two types of orientations, integrative and instrumental, and subsequent studies have tended to focus on these orientations.’ Lambert (1974:98) states that a distinction is often made between the two types of orientation (integrative and instrumental). He observes that:  An integrative orientation toward language study reflects ‘a sincere and personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other group.’

Language Attitude

Language is a mental attitude or feelings towards the position of its own language or language of others (Kridalaksana, 2001:197). In the Indonesian language attitudes word can refer to the body shape, the upright standing position, behavior or gestures, and actions or action taken based on the view (establishment, beliefs, or opinions) as a reaction to the existence of a thing or event.

Attitude is a psychological phenomenon, which usually manifests in the form of action or behavior. Attitudes can not be observed directly. To observe the attitude can be seen through the behavior, but various studies show that what appears in the behavior does not always indicate attitudes. Vice versa, one's attitude is not always reflected in his behavior.

Circumstances and the attitude formation process is not far from the state language and the attitude formation process in general. As with the attitude, the attitude is also the language of mental events that can not be observed directly.

Clause Relations

Clause relations are the building blocks of these sequences, as demonstrated with the following examples (Hoey 1994:27). The clause-relational approach to written text, where it was stressed that the units of written discourse, rather than always being co-extensive with sentences (though they sometimes are), were best seen as functional segments (of anything from phrasal to paragraph length) which could be related to one another by a finite set of cognitive relations, such as cause-consequence, instrument-achievement, temporal sequence, and matching relations such as contrasting and equivalence. Individual segments of texts combined to form the logical structure of the whole and to form certain characteristic patterns (such as problem-solution). The sequencing of segments and how the relations between them are signalled were viewed as factors in textual coherence (see Winter 1977; Hoey 1983).

Discourse – semantics: cohesion in text

This chapter concentrates on exploring the nature of the highest stratum of language: the stratum of meanings, or the discourse-semantics of language.

Halliday and Hasan (1976: 1) offer the definition of the text that provides a starting point for an exploration of text. They suggest that a text is: “any passage (of language), spoken or written, of whatever length, that does from a unified whole (1976:1). In describing how a text forms a unified whole, Halliday and Hasan introduced the concept of texture. Texture is the property that distinguishes text from non text: a text “has texture”. Texture is what holds the clauses of a text together to give them unity.

Coherence refers to the way a group of clauses or sentences relate to the context (Halliday and Hasan 1976:23).

A text has situational coherence  when we can think of one situation in which all the clauses of the text could occur.

CONTEXT OF SITUATION: REGISTER

Systemic linguists are interested in exploring just how context gets into text. In transcribing the daily life and events of the Trobriand Islanders, Malinowski found that it was impossible to make sense of literal, or word for word translation from their language into English. In part Malinowski argued that this indicated the need for the researcher to understand the cultural context in which the language was being used:

the study of any language, spoken by a people who live under conditions different from our own and possess a different culture, must be carried out in conjunction with the study of their culture and their environment (1946: 306).

Malinowksi claimed that language only becomes intelligible when it is placed within its context of situation.

CONTEXT OF CULTURE: GENRE

It was suggested before that taking a systemic functional approach to language involves asking both how people use language, and how language is itself structured for use. In beginning how people use language to achieve culturally appropriate goals, trough the concept of genre. An authentic text can be used to illustrate many of the principles of genre theory.

Native speakers of (Australian) English can very quickly identify three key aspects of this text. They are field, mode and tenor. First aspect is field. We can rapidly identify the topic, what the text is about. We work out the field of this text largely from the lexical items (a word which occurs in a very limited number of contexts). Second aspect is mode. Mode is talking about the role language is playing. Aspects of language used that indicate this mode to us include the fact that we have only one speaker’s contributions. Third aspect is tenor. Tenor is the interpersonal relationships between the interactants.

What we have done so far is to describe the register of the text. Register is describes the immediate situational context in which the text was produced.

Behaviorism in Learning and Teaching

There are some basic theories advanced to deseribe how language is acquired and taught. The behaviorist theory, Mentalist theory, Rationalist theory (otherwise calIed Congitive theory), Empiricist theory (Audiolingualism), and Cognitive-code theory are some of these theories. Of these, behaviorist theory and mentalist theory are mainly applicable to the acquisition of native languages while the rest can account for foreign language acquisition. Yet, the se five fundamental theories of language leaming cannot be totalIy divorced from each other, for "the objectives of second language learning are not necessarily entirely determined by natiye language competence inevitably serves as a foil against which to set second language leaming." (H.H. Stem, .1983; 30).

Cara Mudah Menghafal Tenses Bahasa Inggris

Banyak yang bilang menghafal tenses itu bikin pusing, Bt in dan males banget. Bagi yang sedang mempelajari tata bahasa inggris / english grammar mungkin terbiasa menghafal tenses dengan cara seperti ini :

		PAST	PRESENT	FUTURE
simple	+	S + VII	S + (VI + (s/es))	S + shall/will + VI
	−	S + did + not + VI	S + do/does + not + VI	S + shall/will + not + VI
	?	did + S + VI	do/does + S + VI	shall/will + S + VI
continuous	+	S + (were/was) + (VI+ing)	S + (am,are,is) + (VI+ing)	S + shall/will + be + (VI+ing)
	−	S+(were/was)+not+(VI+ing)	S + (am,are,is) + not + (VI+ing)	S + shall/will + not + be + (VI+ing)
	?	(were/was)+S + (VI+ing)	(am,are,is) + S + (VI+ing)	(shall/will) + S + be + (VI+ing)
perfect	+	S + had + VIII	S + (have/has) + VIII	S + (shall/will) + have + VIII
	−	S + had + not + VIII	S + (have/has) + not + VIII	S + (shall/will) + not + have + VIII
	?	had + S + VIII	(have/has) + S + VIII	(shall/will) + S + VIII
perfect continuous	+	S + had + been + (VI+ing)	S + (have/has) + been + (VI+ing)	S+shall/will+have+been+(VI+ing)
	−	S+had+not+been+(VI+ing)	S+(have/has)+not+been+(VI+ing)	S+shall/will+not+have+been+(VI+ing)
	?	had + S + been + (VI+ing)	(have/has) + S + been + (VI+ing)	shall/will+S+have+been+(VI+ing)

Baru ngeliat tabelnya aja udah capek duluan. Terus gimana? Jangan sedih, daripada pusing, yuk kita coba cara yang satu ini yang aku dapet

My Simple Statement

There are many things that Indonesian should do to make Indonesia better than before. In this section is focus on education. Now is talking about the knowledge and economic aspects. Deeply it is about Increasing the knowledge and starts from the teacher. How’s Indonesia country take the test is the controversial. The facts, in Indonesia use the multiple choice test to know how far the teacher ability (in competency test). This kind of the test is doing not suitable as the one kind of the test. As the minister of education in Indonesia should observe, does it effective? If it does not effective, it should add the sequence test. The first, the teacher who enroll the competency test should give some training how